Higher Human Biology

Mitosis and the cell cycle, germline vs somatic cells, stem cells, and how cancer arises from a loss of cell cycle control.

The double helix, complementary base pairing, and the enzymes that copy DNA before a cell divides.

How the information in a gene is transcribed into mRNA and translated into a protein, including splicing.

Single-gene mutations (missense, nonsense, splice-site, frameshift) and chromosome structure mutations.

Genome sequencing, bioinformatics, and how genomic information is used in personalised medicine.

Anabolic and catabolic reactions, enzyme control of pathways, and the three ways enzyme activity can be inhibited.

Glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, and how they together generate ATP.

How muscle cells generate ATP without oxygen during intense exercise, and the difference between slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibres.

Meiosis and gamete formation in males and females, and the events of fertilisation.

FSH, LH, oestrogen, and progesterone, and how they interact across the menstrual cycle.

Assisted reproduction (IVF, ICSI) for reduced fertility, and how different methods of contraception work.

Ultrasound, amniocentesis and CVS, karyotyping, and postnatal screening such as the PKU heel-prick test.

How the structure of arteries, capillaries, and veins each suit their role in the circulatory system.

The cardiac cycle, the heart's own pacemaker, the ECG, and blood pressure.

Atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and the roles of cholesterol, HDL, and LDL.

The CNS, PNS, and autonomic nervous system, and the three basic types of neural pathway.

The cerebral cortex's main regions and their broad functions.

The three-stage model of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Myelination, synaptic transmission, and how agonist and antagonist drugs affect neurotransmitter action.

Physical and chemical barriers, inflammation, and phagocytes as the body's first lines of defence.

B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, antibodies, and how HIV specifically undermines this system.

How vaccination works, herd immunity, and why pathogens with antigenic variation are harder to vaccinate against.

Why clinical trials are randomised, double-blind, and placebo-controlled.